| Chapter 1: | ADM, A Tomato Named Local Lucy, and Small Farms: The Ecology and Reemergence of Farmers’ Markets |
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The focus is no longer mainly on the local ecosystem. The ‘outsiders’ who impinge on the local and regional ecosystems become key players in the analysis…” (pp. 25–26). In linking local to global, several researchers have identified the multiple levels at play. For instance, according to Jansen (1998), “to understand the process at stake one has to locate the decisions of the ‘land manager’ within a chain of relations: land manager—other groups in society—state—world economy” (p. 213). Or, as Stonich and DeWalt (1989) pointed out, analysis should include interactions between individual, household, community, municipal, regional, national, and international levels. Lastly, Steiner (2002) divided human ecology into habitat (home), community (our surroundings and interactions), ecological region, nation, state, and nation state.
From this perspective, the “ecology” of a locale is interpreted to be more than land or ecosystem but to include the sets of institutions that enhance and regulate the land and ecosystem. As Bennett (1990) observed, “all modern uses of the physical environment are mediated by institutions [italics original]. The concept of institution is absolutely crucial to the problem of environment in the contemporary world” (p. 441). Institutions may include regulatory entities; nongovernment organizations; city, state, and federal governments; and so on.
Paul Robbins (2004) referred to what he calls the “hatchet” and the “seed” of political ecology. “Hatchet” refers to political ecology as critique; “seed” refers to political ecology as “equity and sustainability” research. With regard to the “hatchet,” anthropologists and other social scientists have excelled at critiquing systems that are degrading the environment and marginalizing segments of human populations. A good example for the United States is Thu and Durrenburger’s (1998) edited collection of critical research related to social perspectives on the impacts of industrial agriculture. This work helped to refocus attention on U.S. agriculture as a worthy area of research for anthropologists. Studies related to the “seed” are less common.