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Thirty-four nations were represented, including Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bremen, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany (the Zollverein States), Greece, Hamburg, Hanover, Holland, Lubeck, Mexico, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, New Granada, Oldenberg, Persia, Peru, Portugal, Rome, Russia, Sardinia, Schleswig-Holstein, Society Islands, Spain, Sweden, Switzer-land, Tunis, Turkey, Tuscany, and the United States. There were over 13,000 exhibitors, with at least half the exhibition area being occupied by Great Britain and its colonies.36 Exhibits were judged by international panels and medals were awarded as prizes.
At its heart, the exhibition celebrated the machine, “choosing exclusively to see in it a glorious past and a chance of a blemishless future.”37 This attitude reflected the fact that the industrial and commercial power of the English at the time was partly based on the mechanization of production. Despite this reliance on technology, there was a curious ambivalence toward it among manufacturers. The majority firmly believed that science and technology were not vital to industrial success. Their skepticism increased because in the early part of the century, when industrial practices were changing rapidly, innovation mainly resulted from either the tradesman refining his craft through constant activity or the efforts of the dedicated amateur in pursuit of knowledge for the sake of it.38 They believed that empiricism and scientific understanding had only a limited impact on the developments that were taking place. There were exceptions, particularly in medicine and chemistry, but the two cultures of the “educated amateur and the practical man strengthened resistance to science-based innovation.”39 In general, the rule of thumb prevailed and the possession of raw materials such as coal was regarded as more fundamentally important in maintaining industrial strength.
England’s unrivaled position at the head of the industrial world ap--peared to be reaffirmed when its exhibitors received most of the top prizes for the various categories of award.40 However, Prince Albert believed that there was a growing threat from abroad, which needed to be addressed. He subscribed to an unfashionable notion that the continued supremacy of English manufacturing was not guaranteed. He was aware that improvements in transportation and