| Chapter 1: | Inscribing the Past: A History of Chinese History |
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Mencius asserted that when Confucius wrote his historical record, “rebellious ministers and murderous sons were terrified” 
.32 That is, Confucius’ ostensible comments on mundane events functioned as encoded moral judgments.
That historical writing was held suspect under the state’s observation is attested in Li Si’s 
(?–208 BC) memorial to the first Qin emperor where he recommended that texts such as the Classic of Odes and Shangshu 
(Documents) should be proscribed along with the works of the philosophers. Li also requested that anyone who fails to discard such works be harshly punished. His motivation was his concern that scholars who read historical records look to antiquity to, in actuality, censure the present.33 Li Si’s memorial highlights the suspicion rulers had that officials and academicians of the realm were able to render subtle political criticisms against them that could threaten the perceived legitimacy of their rule. Much later, the Han intellectual Dong Zhongshu imagined a way in which ministers could render their criticisms through the voice of another entity—Heaven (tian 
).34
In Dong’s view, Heaven is conscious of the affairs of the world and, in its concern for the state’s well-being, dispenses omens to warn the ruling house of its misrule. In a response to an inquiry from the emperor regarding the apparent capriciousness of the Mandate to rule, Dong suggested that Heaven warns rulers before finally destroying a dynastic house:
According to Dong, the actions of a ruler are subject to the opinions of Heaven. And in Dong’s view, ministers can best interpret Heaven’s portents and not the emperor himself; this is certainly convenient for the minister who applies his interpretive spin on any natural event so that he can manipulate the ruler by exchanging his judgment for Heaven’s. In this way, Heaven is the mouthpiece of the minister and vice versa.