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Endnotes
1. Fee-foo-HA-zha-na: In Malagasy, “o” is pronounced “oo,” and other vowel sounds echo French in their pronunciation more than English.
2. “AIC” stands for “African Independent Church” or “African-Initiated Church” or “African-Instituted Church” or, finally, “African Indigenous Church.” There is significant research that is widely available on the different use of terminology for these churches; as the movement addressed here is not part of the AIC movement, the initials only will be employed to denote the entire phenomenon of these congregations and movements active on the continent of Africa. It should be noted, however, that those who have studied the AICs and the Fifohazana do see similarities. In David Barrett, Schism and Renewal in Africa. An Analysis of Six Thousand Contemporary Religious Movements (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1968), Barrett classified the Fifohazana, along with the AICs, as an independency movement.
3. Volahavana Germaine, who came to be known as “Nenilava.”
4. See Barrett, Schism and Renewal in Africa, and Hans Austnaberg, Shepherds and Demons: A Study of Exorcism as Practised and Understood by Shepherds in the Malagasy Lutheran Church (Stavanger: School of Mission and Theology, 2006), 50ff.
5. See Cynthia Holder Rich, “Spirit and Culture: Navigating Ecclesiological Minefields in Madagascar,” Journal of Theology in Southern Africa 131 (2008): 58–71.
6. Malagasy names are traditionally printed with the last name first; “Rafanomezantsoa” is this author’s last name. In this volume, most Malagasy names will follow this pattern.
7. Lesley A. Sharp, The Possessed and the Dispossessed: Spirits, Identity and Power in a Madagascar Migrant Town (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993) and Françoise Raison-Jourde, Bible et pouvoir à Madagascar au XIXe siècle: Invention d’une identité chrétienne et construction de l’État (Paris: Karthala, 1991).
8. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (DSM IV), the major desk reference for mental health professionals that details all conditions understood by the American Psychiatric Association as identifiable and treatable, named spirit-related disorders as diagnosable conditions for the first time in 1994.