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above law. When he lost control, his beloved China was left in a state of lawless chaos.
Contemporary Chinese leaders are acutely aware of the possibility that the under-law portion of society could become outlaw. Social instability is the biggest threat to their plan for economic prosperity and modernisation. During the past three decades, they have been trying very hard to establish an impersonal authority of law despite strong internal resistance from within the party.3 They have successfully reduced the political influence of the military,4 which has been and still is the most flagrant source of above-law corruption. They have demonstrated their intolerance of illegal trade and embezzlement through the implementation of harsh, even capital, punishment. They have compelled regional administrations to deal with public outcries for justice in matters concerning labour disputes and social benefits. To reduce the cruelty of Chinese capitalism, with its inhumane disregard of any living creature, the central government has consistently championed the weak and the repressed. However, so far, they have only just reached the foothills of the long high mountain range that is the organised corruption of China.
To establish the authority of constitution and apply law equally to every citizen is a struggle against China's heritage. The very foundation of China's social and political fabric is based on personal connections and influence. The thought of dealing with people who do not possess personal distinction is almost non-Chinese. A language of law disregarding personal connotation is not imaginable, as deeply rooted cultural custom has nurtured a codependency that binds the various layers of society together into a seemingly impenetrable and inflexible mass. To accept the authority of constitution requires a general change of attitude, habit, and way of thinking, not just a political directive to do so.
A change of this nature needs many generations to reach completion. Hence, Chinese modernisation will follow a different path from that of Western countries during the early modern period and that of other developing countries during the twentieth century. Unlike the West, where business and labour interests are regulated by the authority of legislation