| Chapter 1: | Democracy without Politics? Hidden Costs of Corruption and Reform in America |
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variety of optimism, and—arising somewhat later and another matter of ambivalence—egalitarianism.
More so than many others, Americans have made major choices about who and what they want to be and what values their leaders should serve and protect. Arriving in the New World, rid of many of the hereditary claims and historical conflicts that shaped politics, power, and concepts of office in the Old World, and after the revolution free—indeed, compelled—to devise ways of governing a fragmented nation with continental ambitions, Americans arguably tried to have things all ways at once—to be moralistic and to exercise individual liberty, and to be secure and free while retaining a fundamental skepticism of leaders. The Federalist Papers—expressing only one side of the debate over the new Constitution, but still the major formal justification of that scheme of government—explored these choices and tensions. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay offered both revolutionary idealism and realistic assessments of human nature, drawing upon themes dating at least from the time of Locke. But unlike many earlier thinkers, they were also advocating plans for a working government that had to be accepted by fellow citizens. “Publius” knew that ideals in the absence of workable plans were pointless, that plans not driven by ideals would be fruitless, and that schemes threatening the liberties won in the revolution stood little chance of ratification. He believed governments could do great things, but also knew that they were built and led by fallible human beings and that both leaders and institutions would be the focus of conflicting interests and political passions that were not about to ebb. Madison captured the challenge in Federalist 51:
How were the challenges outlined by Madison to be overcome?