Observing Society: Meaning, Communication, and Social Systems By ...

a network of members. Finally, societal systems are functionally differentiated channels of communication that pursue operations that refer to a specific problem area of society, such as the economy, law, education, religion, science, and the family.

In chapter 7, we further develop the construct of social differentiation by describing four forms in which society may turn inward and internally differentiate itself: as segmented, center/periphery, stratified, and functionally differentiated communication. In this sense, we compare increasingly complex alternative forms in which society may observe the possibilities for continuing and reproducing its unity. A form of society organizes and selects sequential elements of communication by observing a working distinction, but this distinction may change as time passes, conditions change, and society evolves. Segmented, or tribal, society is the oldest and simplest form, analogous to Emile Durkheim's “mechanical” society (1964), Ferdinand Toennies’ “Gemeinschaft” (2001), and Robert Redfield's notion of “primitive” society (1953). The form of society increases in internal complexity when communication is differentiated according to the distinction between center and periphery. Stratified society, as Max Weber (1972) nearly suggested with his concept of “status group,” organizes communication in terms of position within a stratification scheme, making reference to a socially established hierarchy. Finally, in functionally differentiated modern society, communication is organized according to its function. As it continues to evolve, society may establish other patterns of connections, but these four forms have reproduced themselves with consistency.

As with any other sociological theory, contemporary social system theory must demonstrate an ability to contribute to a method that effectively supports scientific inquiry. In our final chapter we observe social system theory and evaluate its potential to inform empirical research. We argue that the traditional form of the datum (datum/variable and constant) is the fundamental form used in scientific observation. Any useful social system theoretical analysis depends on a method that can specify the form of the datum and describe how its “empirical” variety is conditioned. Qualitative methods such as interviewing, content analysis, discourse