African Environmental and Human Security in the 21st Century By ...

lens of LST, the world is a living system consisting of multiple systems within systems, with an almost infinite number of relationships and connections among all systems, living and nonliving.¹⁰

The foundation of the living systems theory is from the theoretical works of James G. Miller and Fritjof Capra. In his book Living Systems, Miller proposes that complex structures which carry out living processes can be identified at seven hierarchical levels and have nineteen critical subsystems whose processes are essential for life.¹¹ Types of processes that are essential for life are the processing of matter, energy, and information. According to Miller, there are seven hierarchical levels of living systems: the cell, organ, organism, group, organization, society, and supranational. The hierarchy of living systems begins at the simplest living system (the biological cell) and ends at the most complex living system (the supranational system, which consists of two or more societal systems). Miller painstakingly details the increasing complexities of his nineteen processes for each level of living systems.

Fritjof Capra offers another approach, which we adopt. In his book The Web of Life: A New Scientific Understanding of Living Systems, Capra theorizes a living system possesses form, matter, process, and meaning.¹² These four criteria of living coexist and enable living systems to adapt, survive, create, and propagate through time. These characteristics reveal that living systems make choices and have unique worldviews. Examples of living systems include societies, governments, terrorist organizations, and other human groupings, as well as environmental elements such as animals, crops, trees, and so on.¹³ These living systems also interact with nonliving systems such as the soil, air, and water. These insights are important for three reasons: First, they point to the importance of understanding the impact of the security environment, in all its manifestations, on the individual and how that individual decides to interact with other living and nonliving systems around him or her. It also reminds us that groupings of individuals make choices as well: that is, governments, societies, ethnic groups, terrorist organizations, and so on. Second, there are myriad connections and relationships among and between these systems. We cannot possibly explore all possible relationships among living