| Chapter : | Introduction |
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over the proximate (Belgian) Congolese border to labor on Diamang's mines. From the commencement of mining operations in 1917 until Angolan independence in 1975, the Baluba population remained at the heart of this quarrel, filling valuable roles for the company but also engendering both ethnic-based tension on the mines and discord between Diamang and the colonial state.
Cleveland reconstructs the experiences of these Baluba laborers and argues that in spite of the state's aversion toward this group, the central roles that Baluba played over time at Diamang rendered them indispensable to the company's prodigious success. At no point was this contribution more essential than in the early years of Diamang's operations, as Baluba began appearing on the company's mines requesting work while local Chokwe populations were either hesitant to seek employment with the company or even aggressively resisting its presence. Furthermore, Baluba typically arrived as experienced laborers, having already learned the various tasks involved in alluvial diamond mining at Forminière, a concessionary company operating just over the border in the (Belgian) Congo. Consequently, Diamang typically employed Baluba as mine overseers, or capatazes, or in other less arduous positions, while it was content to utilize the droves of Chokwe laborers it procured via forced labor schemes for more physically demanding tasks. Thus, even though the number of Baluba employees was small compared to the masses of Chokwe workers, they were, as one Diamang official asserted, “precious auxiliaries.” While the company was enjoying this arrangement, soon after Baluba began arriving on Diamang's mines, the ascendant nationalism in the colony—Portugal viewed the Baluba as “foreigners”—fueled the state's discontent concerning this scenario and in 1923 prompted it to decree that all Baluba be replaced with indigenous Angolan capatazes. What ensued was a decades-long tussle between the state and the company that saw this minority labor force play shifting roles in the company's operations according to both state and company perceptions of its “proper” place within the enterprise. Ultimately, only after Congolese independence in 1960 did Diamang officials temper some of their support for this population because of