| Chapter 2: | Theoretical Background |
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ESL study suggested that not only syntax but also some morphological items could be analysed in terms of the same framework.
Tables 2.2 and 2.3 show the stages of development in ESL acquisition in syntax and morphology, respectively, with examples.
The following summarises the main characteristics and underlying principles of each ESL stage based on Pienemann and Johnston (1987b) and Pienemann, Johnston, and Brindley (1988).
Stage 1
The first stage of ESL is characterised as the ‘presyntactic’ stage, in which single words and formulaic expressions are produced. The learner does not need to know any target grammar or lexical category of the
Table 2.2. Stages in ESL acquisition: Syntactic structures.
| Stage | Syntax | Examples |
| 6 | Cancel Inversion |
I wonder where he is
I asked him where he is from |
| 5 |
Do - 2nd
Aux - 2nd Neg - Do 2nd |
Seldom do I go there
Why did she say that? Where have you lost it? He does not like it |
| 4 |
Y/N inversion
Copula inv Particle shift |
Have you seen him?
Is she at home? Where is she? Turn the light on |
| 3 |
Topicalization
Do- fronting Adverb Fronting Neg + Verb |
Tennis I like
Do he live here? Today he stay here He don’t ask |
| 2 |
Neg + SVO
SVO? SVO |
You live here?
You live here John eat rice |
| 1 |
Single words
Formulae |
Hello. Thank you. How are you? |
Source. After Pienemann (1995, p. 15).
Table 2.3. Stages in ESL acquisition: Morphology.
| Stage | Morphology | +(supplied) | > (oversupplied) | – (not supplied in obligatory context) |
| 6 | – | – | – | – |
| 5 | 3rd person
singular -s Adverb -ly |
he eats
run slowly |
he is eats
fastly |
he eat
run slow |
| 4 | possessive -’s
plural -s |
Pat’s cat
two cats |
he saw Pat’s
a cats |
Pat cat
two cat |
| 3
2 |
past -ed
-ing |
she cried
going dogs are cute |
she goed shop
wenting |
Last year she study
------ dog is cute |
| 1 | Single words, Formulae | hello |
Source. After Pienemann (1995).