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Endnotes
1. Snow, Red Star over China, 134. For Zheng's influence on Korea, see Lee, A New History of Korea.
2. Qi, Wang Qing shi zhiyao, 87, 100.
3. Yi, Zheng Guanying pingzhuan.
4. Hao, “Cheng Kuan-ying: The Comprador as Reformer.”
5. For the reform of Zhang Zhidong, see Bays, China Enters the Twentieth Century.
6. Hao, “Cheng Kuan-ying,” 15.
7. One Qing official document mentions that Zheng had maritime travel experiences to Vietnam, Siam, and Singapore as a child, but this is considered slightly exaggerated. See Yi, Zheng Guanying pingzhuan, 13.
8. Murphey, “The Treaty Ports and China's Modernization,” in The Chinese City between Two Worlds, 18.
9. The concepts of “cultural space” and “cultural region” are borrowed from the study of Claudio Lomnitz-Adler in Exits From the Labyrinth. Lomnitz-Adler stresses that the regional frame of cultural interaction must be analyzed to understand Mexican national culture. He defines regional culture as the construction of frames of communication within and between the various identity groups, and these groups also have their spaces (see 23). He also defines a cultural region as a cultural space that is articulated through a process of class domination (see 28).
10. William Rowe in Hankow: Commerce and Society makes a great contribution in challenging the rigid Weberian inference that China lacked an economically oriented and self-conscious urban community. Following this line, we will find, ironically, that Bryna Goodman's Native Place, City and Nation, while arguing for the continuity of Chinese culture, runs the risk of repeating the Weberian notion about the Chinese city's character as “fortress” by overemphasizing the nativism and particularism of the provincial people living in Shanghai. However, I think the ruralization of the city should not be overemphasized so much as to overshadow the cosmopolitan nature of a metropolis. Thus, identifying the emergence of the urban group represented by Zheng and others will help challenge Max Weber's notion that Chinese cities were overwhelmingly made up of sojourners.
11. Chinese-language scholarly works on Zheng Guanying include Xia, Zheng Guanying zhuan; Xia, Zheng Guanying; and Yi, Zheng Guanying pingzhuan. Important research papers include Kwang-Ching Liu, “Shangren yu jingshi”