| Chapter 1: | Introduction |
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In disciplines relating to social organization, including philosophy (especially ethics), anthropology (ethnography), psychology (group therapy), political science (negotiations), economics, sociology, and biology (family and spousal relationships), reciprocity, sometimes refined as reciprocal altruism, typically encodes a strong value judgment: reciprocity is good, nonreciprocity is bad.31 However, gift exchange, a prime example of reciprocity at its least ambiguous, is not its only form. In cases where one party commits a wrong, reciprocity might take the form of a call for revenge, which reaffirms the status of the injured party and humiliates the malefactor; such reciprocity can be considered harmful or negative. “The reciprocity of revenge has emotional overtones that, if not stronger, are significantly more obvious than those associated with gift-exchange.”32
Another kind of reciprocity, involving mutual self-interest, might be regarded as ethically neutral. However, it is often assumed that the consequence of mutual self-interest is a social good, although an equally strong case can be made that it may have socially evil consequences, as when cartels are formed that act against the public interest. The widespread intuitive belief that reciprocity per se is an incontestable good leads to many false assumptions of this kind.
Anthropologists are among the main investigators of reciprocity, usually focusing on the notion of the gift. Early ethnographical research shows that gift exchange existed in early communities alongside markets, which are understood to be institutionalized opportunities for barter between people who are relative or complete strangers. It is sometimes suggested that trade began as an exchange of gifts or as tribute for gifts. Despite having overlapping functions and processes, crucial distinctions nevertheless exist between gift exchanges and market transactions. For example, unlike sales and contracts, gift exchange is not protected by law.33 Gift exchange and trading also differ in their aims or purposes. The gift exchange is