13. On the South Atlantic and the exchanges between Brazil and West Central Africa, see Alencastro, O Trato dos Viventes; Roquinaldo Ferreira, “Transforming Atlantic Slaving: Trade, Warfare, and Territorial Control in Angola, 1650–1800” (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2003); José C. Curto, Enslaving Spirits: The Portuguese-Brazilian Alcohol Trade at Luanda and its Hinterland, c. 1550–1830 (Leiden: Brill, 2004); Mariana P. Candido, “Enslaving Frontiers: Slavery, Trade and Identity in Benguela, 1780–1850” (PhD diss., York University, 2006); and Nancy Priscilla Naro, Roger Sansi-Roca, and David E. Treece, eds., Cultures of the Lusophone Black Atlantic (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007). On the exchanges between Brazil and the Bight of Benin, see Pierre Verger’s seminal work, Flux et re?ux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de Todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1969), later translated into English and Portuguese. More recent works include Milton
Guran, Agudás: Os “brasileiros” do Benim (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Nova
Fronteira, 1999); Alberto da Costa e Silva, Um rio chamado Atlântico: A África no Brasil e o Brasil na África (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2003); Alberto da Costa e Silva, Francisco Félix de Souza: Mercador de escravos (Rio de Janeiro: Editora da Universidade Estadaual do Rio de Janeiro, Nova Fronteira, 2004); Kristin Mann and Edna G. Bay, eds., Rethinking the African Diaspora: The Making of a Black Atlantic World in the Bight of Benin and Brazil (London: Frank Cass, 2001); and Ana Lucia Araujo, Public Memory of Slavery: Victims and Perpetrators in the South Atlantic (Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2010).

14. There are numerous studies of slaves, former slaves, and slave merchants who moved all over the Atlantic. See Pierre Verger, Os libertos: Sete caminhos na liberdade de escravos da Bahia do século XIX (Salvador: Corrupio, 1992); Robin Law and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His Passage From Slavery to Freedom in Africa and America (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2001); Vincent Carretta, Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005); Jane G. Landers, Atlantic Creoles in the Age of Revolutions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010).

15. See Ira Berlin, “From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America,” William and Mary Quarterly 53, no. 2 (1996): 251–288; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 2000), chapters 1 and 2; John K.