a means of replacing racial rivalry for economic and political power “by a working together in which the skills of the minority groups are used to the advantage of the whole community.” Gwendolen Carter, “Multi-Racialism in Africa,” International Affairs 36 (1960): 457.

13. Donald Rothchild, Racial Bargaining in Independent Kenya (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 105. In Rosberg’s 1958 view, multiracialism in practice involved the British government attempting to coax Kenya’s racial groups into coalition. Rosberg, “Political Conflict,” 92.

14. David Gordon, “Mau Mau and Decolonization: Kenya and the Defeat of Multi-Racialism in East and Central Africa,” Kenya Historical Review 5 (1977): 340.

15. John Harbeson, “Land Reform and Politics in Kenya, 1954–70,” Journal of Modern African Studies 9 (1971): 237.

16. Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1990), 287.

17. Cranford Pratt, “Colonial Governments and the Transfer of Power in East Africa,” in The Transfer of Power in Africa: Decolonization 1940–1960,ed. Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 261.

18. This conception follows that of P. L. Agweli Onalo, An African Appraisal: Constitution-Making in Kenya (Nairobi: Transafrica Press, 2004), 14–17.

19. Wunyabari Maloba, “Decolonization: A Theoretical Perspective,” in Decolonization & Independence in Kenya 1940–93, ed. B. A. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng’ (London: James Currey, 1995), 16. Maloba also noted the arbitrary nature of colonial rule, “an exercise of power without consultation or restraint.”

20. There were those in the period who called for a more populist version of democracy, which would bring about a transformation that addressed “existing inequalities in the distribution of economic and political power.” The colonial state or the imperial power never seriously considered this latter goal for Kenya. Bruce Berman, Dickson Eyoh, and Will Kymlicka, “Ethnicity & the Politics of Democratic Nation-Building in Africa,” in Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, ed. Bruce Berman, Dickson Eyoh, and Will Kymlicka (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004), 2.

21. Onalo, African Appraisal, 14–17. Shadrack Wanjala Nasong’o, “Political Transition Without Transformation: The Dialectic of Liberalization Without Democratization in Kenya and Zambia,” African Studies Review 50 (2007): 85.

22. Proportional representation was not seriously considered. Nasong’o, “Political Transition,” 86.