the relationship of the world to the stories as transparent and those that do not.

21. An early scholar who addressed international influences on Lu Xun’s fiction is Patrick Hanan in “The Technique of Lu Hsün’s Fiction” (1974). Hanan analyzed the interrelationship of subject matter and formal elements in the Western short stories that Lu Xun was known to have read or even translated, focusing particularly on irony as well as other technical strategies that he employed in individual stories. Hanan’s work is important to understanding how Lu Xun achieved his literary effects.

22. For example, Tang understood “A Diary of a Madman” to be a modernist text. He wrote in Chinese Modern that it can be read “as a manifesto of the birth of modern subjectivity as well as of a modernist politics in twentieth-century China” (57). In discussing how the story dissolves the earlier relationship between the signifier and the signified, he compared Lu Xun’s deconstructive procedures to those of Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud (66).

23. Cheng’s Literary Remains explores the interrelationship of the tradition and the modern in Lu Xun’s creative works.

24. Hu Shi, one of the most important cultural figures of modern China, was an American-educated philosopher, literary historian, essayist, and ambassador. During the May 4th period he championed the use of the vernacular language even for literature. He is often considered a non-ideological liberal scholar. He served as Chinese ambassador to the United States from 1938–1942, then chancellor of Peking University, and spent his final years writing and teaching in the United States and Taiwan. Zhang Mengyang devoted chapter 20 of Lu Xun xue to this comparison.

25. Chou, Memory, Violence, and Queues, 8–9.

26. Ibid., 10.

27. Chih-tsing Hsia, “Obsession with China,” 533–554.

28. Among excellent, recent studies that take historical, biographical, and societal approaches are those of Chou, Memories, Violence, Queues, and Cheng, Literary Remains. Although nearly every discussion of Lu Xun’s works is colored by political concerns, Gloria Davies Lu Xun’s Revolution addresses the political nature and context of Lu Xun’s career primarily from 1927 until his death in 1936.

29. “Ewen yiben ‘Ah Q Zheng Zhuan’ Xu” 俄文译本‘阿Q正传’序 [Preface to the Russian translation of ‘The True Story of Ah Q’], LXQJ, 7:82. My