Modern Asia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); and Jaymin Kim, “Asymmetry and Elastic Sovereignty in the Qing Tributary World: Criminals and Refugees in Three Borderlands, 1630s–1840s” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2018). Joseph MacKay, “Rethinking Hierarchies in East Asian Historical IR,” Journal of Global Security Studies (2018): 1–14, https://doi.​org/​1​0​.​1​0​9​3​/​jogss/​ogy0​2​8​, provides a useful but lamentably jargon-filled overview of the literature on China’s historical foreign relations, emphasizing the idea of a “dialogue between cores and peripheries” that produced “multiple arrangements for hierarchical influence and rule” (1). See also note 12 to this introduction.

12. See notes 10 and 11 to this introduction. The most comprehensive English-language account of the tributary system from a Chinese theoretical and institutional perspective remains John K. Fairbank and S. Y. Teng, “On the Qing Tributary System,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (June 1941): 135–246. See also John K. Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968). For a more up-to-date summary of the system, see David C. Kang, East Asia before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), esp. chaps. 3, 4, and 5. Harriet Zurndorfer provides an outstanding “State of the Field” overview of recent scholarship on maritime East Asia in “Oceans of History, Seas of Change: Recent Revisionist Writing in Western Languages about China and East Asian Maritime History during the Period 1500–1630,” International Journal of Asian Studies 13, no. 1 (2016): 61–94.  

13. Donald Clark, “Sino-Korean Tributary Relations under the Ming,” in The Cambridge History of China, ed. Denis C. Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote, vol. 8: The Ming Dynasty, Part 2: 1368–1644 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998): 272–300, esp. 279–280. Cf. Jaymin Kim’s “Asymmetry and Elastic Sovereignty in the Qing Tributary World,” esp. 85–144.

14. For the larger picture of East Asian trade, see Kang, East Asia before the West, esp. chap. 6; Angela Schottenhammer, ed., Trading Networks in Early Modern East Asia (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 2010); and Angela Schottenhammer, ed., The East Asian Mediterranean-Maritime Crossroads of Culture, Commerce, and Human Migration (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 2008). See also Angela Schottenhammer’s articles “The ‘China Seas’ in World History: A General Outline of the Role of Chinese and East Asian Maritime Space from Its Origins to c. 1800,” Journal of Marine and Island Cultures 1 (2012): 63–86; and “Empire and