Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

self in history and cultures, and its multiplicity, autonomy, and bounds. Therefore, this enquiry will be empirically limited to the representation of some specific cases, and we can examine how much these conceptual clusters are compatible with Chinese ideas of the self at various times, taking into account that human relationships and hierarchy play an important role in Confucianism.

This study focuses on Ming and Qing thinkers and writers who were involved directly or indirectly in a movement toward the reevaluation of individual autonomy and the rehabilitation of passions and desires, some of them close to the so-called “cult of qing.”⁵ Some of the theories that emphasized the assertion of an autonomous self and respect for individuality were grounded in the belief in human’s natural feelings, the exaltation of private interests and desires as a source of authenticity against the conformism of principles and restrictions on genuine subjects. Although very different from several orthodox ideas, these tendencies developed out of traditional thought and were not aimed at overcoming tradition, nor did they intend to discredit tools and concepts of the past.

Before dealing with a few theoretical problems, I prefer to get to the heart of the matter and start with two historical cases of intolerance. They are emblematic of one of the ways in which one asserts self-respect, in concrete resistance against the authorities’ censure and imposed conformism. The resistance of two Ming intellectuals means above all their ability to defend their stance and their ideas, a witness of self-respect and personal autonomy: “a scholar dies protesting and a soldier dies fighting” (文死諫,武死戰). But self-respect can be accomplished in different way, and may be even performed by adapting to circumstances and avoiding a hard resistance; the choice depends on one’s highest value and personal character. The antihero of the Honglou Meng, Baoyu, is one example which is different from the two previous cases of resistance to intolerance: Baoyu does not appreciate heroic and honorable death in normal times and prefers an aesthetic end, floating away in a river of beauties’ tears. Again, other responses were possible and probable, like