Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

also the gauge of other people’s expectations. Li Zhi’s great intuition corresponds with the basic assumption that human beings are self-motivated—their actions follow impulses to satisfy their desires and the dictates of self-gratification; they are deeply motivated by drives and passions. This recognition of one’s self, balanced by the principle of reciprocity, reverses and reinterprets the relationship between public and private spaces (si-gong 私公) in society; it extends the space of the self, which is thereby enriched by empathy as well as individual desires and feelings. This space, so it is thought, limits the dangers of hypocrisy and intolerance and stimulates the acknowledgement of others’ personal sphere starting from one’s innate self-asserting tendencies (tongxin). If the role-morality temperates the abstract, static concept of a unique, and completely independent self, it does not undermine its constant self-asserting essence.

(B) from a psychological point of view, extending desires and feelings to others (tuiyu) means a deeper understanding of one’s and people’s expectations which, as a consequence, leads to a more harmonious social life. Empathy comes from the consciousness that all humans share the same nature, with corresponding needs, hopes, desires, and weaknesses, even if they are different in conditions, abilities, interests, and other such factors.

(C) from an ethical point of view, the adoption of lenient approaches in judging others while simultaneously remaining strict to oneself not only allows a better understanding among individuals but also enhances tolerance in society on the basis of the Confucian principle of reciprocity (shu 恕). This would virtually eliminate or reduce double moral standards as well.

(D) acknowledging that truth is not the monopoly of any cultural, religious, or moral system would help discourage fundamentalism and reduce the abuse of ideology. In this regard, Li Zhi’s contribution is illuminating for it rejects that a moral system could be considered superior to humans, to their needs and natural desires, as already mentioned—a