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man with a negative physiognomy and a righteous mind will accumulate secret merits until his misfortunes turn into good fortune. This means that man is master of his own fate and nature; in other words, that his determination can overcome his natural disposition and not that physiognomy is ineffective.”

64. Mencius stressed that will is the guide of vital energy, provided it is focused and concentrated (zhuan xin zhi zhi 專心致志). Energy interacts with external stimuli and can shift the human mind. Thus, one cannot just rely on energy; one has to guide it with their will: “The will is the leader of the passion-nature [psychophysical energy]. The passion-nature pervades and animates the body. The will is first and chief, and the passion-nature is subordinate to it. Therefore I say, Maintain firm the will, and do no violence to the passion-nature.” (夫志，氣之帥也；氣，體之充也。夫志至焉，氣次焉。故曰：持其志，無暴其氣) (Mencius, Gong Sunchou, I 公孫丑上; trans. by Legge).

65. Zhang Zai Ji, 321.

66. Lunyu, Yang Huo 陽貨 17.3.

67. Er Cheng Yishu, juan 18, in Siku Quanshu, Zibu, Rujialei.

68. Ibid. See “惟上智與下愚不移，非謂不可移也，而有不移之理。所以不移者，只有兩般：為自暴自棄，不肯學也。使其肯學，不自暴自棄，安不可移哉?” (Er Cheng Yishu, juan 19), and “孔子所言上智下愚不移亦無不移之理，所以不移只有二自暴自棄是也” (Er Cheng Yishu, juan 22, part one). See also Jinsilu Jijie, 1: 14: “人苟以善自治，則無不可移者。雖昏愚之至，皆可漸磨而進.”

69. “上智下愚不移 […]及到達處，雖下愚也會達，便不愚了” (Zhuzi Yulei, 44: 1141).

70. “問：「上智下愚，如何不可移」？先生曰，不是不可移。只是不肯移」” (Chuanxilu, 1: 109).

71. Er Cheng Yishu, juan 2, part two, in Siku Quanshu, Zibu, Rujialei.

72. The word chi zhi 持志 occurs thirteen times in Huang Zongxi’s Mingru Xue’an. To “establish one’s determination” is followed by “to hold it” (立志持志) in the chapter on Liu Zongzhou (62:698).

73. Zhuzi Yulei, 104: 2623. Compare the concept of “determination” (zhi) with that of intention and emotion, see Zhuzi Yulei, 98: 2514.

74. Bloom, “On the Matter of Mind,” 312.

75. Zhuzi Yulei, 23: 551. Translation is by Irene Bloom (“On the Matter of Mind,” 312), with small changes.