Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

While acknowledging the state’s intolerance and limitations to individual autonomy at the light of modern thought,¹¹ one cannot certainly ignore how the combination of religious syncretism and doctrinal pluralism, as well as the richness of China’s intellectual history and popular culture, have contributed to the development and respect of individual autonomy. Notwithstanding the repression machine of the state, the efficiency of Chinese imperial institutions rested on their adaptability to social and historical changes, as well as on the degree of harmony they were able to achieve at all levels of society. Harmony was promoted from above by state authorities, but the idea of it also permeated the sphere of family and public life through community-based activities which virtually required each individual to engage spontaneously in self-cultivation. Historically, the term “harmony” often concealed the oppression of minorities and dissent. However, the fact that harmony was not only the result of hierarchical obedience but also, most importantly, of continuous individual negotiations makes it compatible, at least in theory, with the principle of personal autonomy and not antithetical to it, as many are led to think. The more an individual is conscious of their autonomy, the more society progresses toward harmony and stability. It would, therefore, be inaccurate to pay attention only to social responsibility, social harmony, and obedience, neglecting that individual self-determination, heterodox thinkers, dissident scholars, resistance, and critical attitudes have also existed in Chinese cultural history. It is often forgotten that Confucius was a dissident of his times. A strong sense of responsibility, like the one which characterized Confucius himself, does always imply the ability of dissenting and remonstrating. To provide a better understanding of how personal autonomy was lived, I will draw on two examples of intolerance from respectively the beginning and the end of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).