Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

throughout the whole imperial period, albeit loosening at certain times. What worried authorities most were the political and moral effects of this process of individualization rather than theoretical questions per se, as it is evident particularly in the administration of religious matters. The case of Li Zhi is significant because it shows how the interaction between ideological debates, local power struggles, bureaucratic factionalism, the intolerance of authorities, and their concern over mores all contributed to shaping political dynamics. On one hand, the publication of his books sanctioned his unconventional behavior and helped reformulate the standard of social morality, but on the other, it led to his persecution. It is worth noting that Li Zhi’s persecution was not completely successful, for, despite the ban and burning of his books, they have been printed again on several occasions after his death and have survived into the present day. Spreading unorthodox writings was usually considered a serious crime, a crime which could be easily worsened whenever accompanied by unconventional, socially deviant, or scandalous behaviors alleged to have a bad influence on young generations. While rethinking personal autonomy in Chinese civilization and the value ascribed to it by some minor streams of the tradition, one should not overlook these unorthodox elements within Confucianism. It is exactly because of these elements that Confucianism may offer not only new ways to understand Chinese society and its cultural creativity but also new perspectives on the self and its centrality in the non-Western world.

Redefining some of the basic polarities discussed earlier may help clarify how a space for individuality has developed in China. A few directions have been identified as follows:

(A) the growing awareness of human self-motivation—that is the awareness that the real motivation of each individual is self-realization and self-interests even when altruistic behaviors are involved—is manifested in autonomous and heteronomous moral choices. Individual choices always respond to one’s vital, economic, or aesthetic satisfaction, as well as to self-preservation, interests, and self-development, but they are