Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

essence, the self-centered nature of the human being. Nevertheless, they have noticed that the recognition of “self-motivation” is not against moral progress: owing to the interdependence of human beings and their interconnections, the progressive extension of empathy for those near them, and caring for the health of oneself are considered the condition for the welfare of the community on the basis of reciprocity. The well-being of oneself and one’s beloved is the aim of the most enlightened thinkers. Thus, the search for others’ respect is not an egoistic flaw but a constant stimulation for social improvement. In other words, the high value of an autonomous and moral self has developed in Chinese tradition, with a wide range of opinions on the concept of the moral self. The growth of an individualistic and free personality is nevertheless predominantly associated with the consciousness of the impossibility of a self-sufficient identity and the chariness about any hypertrophy of the self, its isolation from reality and from other members of society, and unity with all beings of the universe. Even thinkers who have fought against the conformism and hypocrisy of moralism and have emphasized the self-motivated nature of the human being have not set passions and desires against society but rather considered independence and self-interests as prerequisites for an inclusive society.¹²

Among the final considerations, we can first examine various dimensions of the self, and this depends on which aspects we want to focus. The moral self is extremely developed in Chinese civilization. It is expressed through the affective sphere, especially moral emotions and self-evaluation emotions, tendencies, and virtues. The sense of shame, indignation, discernment, modulation of attraction-repulsion, and the habit of self-cultivation are all fundamental elements of the Way. Nevertheless, the representation of emotions is key evidence of the concept of self in its moral, amoral, and immoral manifestations. Second, it is also evident that the moral self—provided it dominates ethical and sapiential production—covers only one part of the real self, and the search for an original-natural self does not necessarily correspond to it. It is the affective sphere that seems to be the essence of the self, beyond moral evaluation. Third, the