Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

Such cases were not rare, and similar and even more atrocious events took place in Europe around the same period. However, the sense of dignity and autonomous personality were manifested in many scholars’ words and behavior. It was far from being lost, as it appears most prominently in the “moral heroism” (ziren 自任) professed by Zhu Jiyou, Fang Xiaoru 方孝孺 (1357–1402), and the martyrs who sacrificed themselves during the Ming-Qing transition.¹² This sense of dignity in various ways has been manifested by those who have remonstrated against the political powers—from Confucius to contemporary dissidents.

There were scholars who, aware of the “life-threatening danger” (yishen zhi huo 一身之禍) of voicing divergent opinions, recorded these events and asserted the dignified right of any Confucian to express his own sentiments and ideas. Zhu Jiyou becomes the emblem of exemplary courage in front of the repression by authority, so popular that Lü Kun 吕坤 (1536–1618) mentions him in “Collected Works from the Studio Free from Falsehood” (Quwei Zhai Wenji 去偽齋文集).¹³ Two centuries and a half after Zhu Jiyou’s incident, in a period of restoration of orthodoxy and growing veneration for the School of Principle, it is recalled by Yan Yuan 顏元 (1635–1704), who affirms his right of dissent and autonomy of judgment and appreciates his great courage.¹⁴ His story is reported as follows:

The orthodox Neo-Confucians of the Song era are today remembered as the greatest sages of antiquity. When Han Yu criticized Buddhism, he almost risked his life. What would happen to those [like him] who dare to call into question the [rules of the] sages of today? Zhu Jiyou refuted the Cheng-Zhu theories, and for this, he was sent back to his place of origin and beaten by the authorities. Thus, what would happen if one took the risk of discussing and judging their value? Opening one’s mouth means risking one’s life. But if you remain silent for fear of ill consequences to yourself and falsely accuse fate, you contribute to worsening people’s conditions and to the suffering of the universe. I am afraid this would be like sitting quietly and idly without lifting a finger, while someone else is about to fall into the waters. Is