Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

Prologue

Does the concept of the “individual” occur only in Western culture, or can we speak of Chinese “individualism” as well? In touching upon this question and its related politically sensitive issues, this study calls into question the impression of a Chinese culture centered on harmony and conformism and opposed to an individualistic Europe, which is, in contrast, based on the concept of personal human dignity, which allows the liberty of choice to human beings. Not only ancient Confucians show their consciousness of dignity; in the writings of the late imperial period, a certain leeway can be seen that assures to the individual a degree of independence. The human being is an autonomous agent who belongs to a wider “reality” and constantly oscillates between the quietness of spirit and ephemeral feelings; affective components, emotions, and beliefs are seen as the main expression of an individual self. Self is therefore perceived not simply as the embodiment of everlasting or temporary values and beliefs but in the endeavor toward self-assertion. Most of this book deals with the tension toward personal autonomy and individual values, as well as the role of ethics in the process of self-construction. The sense of responsibility in Confucianism is identified with the “moral self” and understood as a basic category of representation of one’s self and others. Notwithstanding the severity of official control, elements of