Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

tendencies may be evaluated as moral principles, as far as their fulfilment corresponds to the basic conditions for human beings. Any universalism that does not recognize this natural tendency is destined to a self-deception of pure altruism/communitarianism.

8. Still, different tendencies are now developed among the thinkers inspired by Confucianism, and they reflect the rich polyphony developed in the history of Chinese culture. A modernized Confucianism that accepts universal values, democracy, human rights, and individual liberty cannot avoid being critical in front of any violation of human dignity, and cannot forget that Confucius was a dissident in his times. Besides, some currents of thought seem to look back to the enforcement of paternalistic rules, some propose to re-create, under the name of a “Chinese way,” a renewed imperial ideology, grounded in nationalism rather than universalism, a construction of the past for the sanctification of the present.⁵⁹ Even worse, a mere re-confucianization (儒化) of China on a moralistic basis that ignores the evolution of the society seems rather utopian—as noted to be “only selling ancient medicine (藥方只販古時丹).”⁶⁰ On the contrary, a “reactualization” of Chinese rites as renewed values based on the respect of pluralism in an open society is the contribution that can come from Chinese culture now.

9. Self-reform is an extremely sophisticated method of moral perfection, as it enhances the positive side of human beings. But for the civil growth of citizens and societies, Confucianism in the past has not elaborated legal and institutional systems beyond the ethical effort in “establishing” and “promoting.” Thus, concerning the political sphere, the evolution of Confucianism with the meritocratic system now needs to be supplemented with new contributions from other modern ideologies and experiments, in order to avoid becoming an ahistorical, dystopic vision of traditional Confucianism or, worse, a parody for the legitimation of intolerance and repression. The Confucian ideal of harmony requires institutions for the control of rulers in defence of the ruled,