10. Schwartz, “Some Polarities in Chinese Thought.” Edmund S. K. Fung (“Were Chinese Liberals Liberal?”) highlights that Yan Fu contributed to resolving the practical problem raised but left unanswered by Mill—how to best negotiate the proper spheres of authority and judgement respectively to society and the individual. Yan’s answer embedded the self within the group based on a mutual territory of authority, and imposed obligations on both society and the individual. Although Yan did not systematically alter Mill’s argument that individual liberties contribute to the progress of humanity, Yan expanded Mill’s concept of “love of virtue,” insisting that virtue was fundamental to the enjoyment of liberty. Fung notes that Huang Kewu acknowledges that Yan had some difficulties in translating such terms as “privacy,” “taste,” “rights,” and “legitimate self-interest,” as well as being ambiguous about the terms “will,” “reason,” “judgement,” and “individual spontaneity,” because he was looking at Western individualism from the Confucian perspective (565).

11. Muhlhahn, “‘Friendly Pressure,’” 243. Muhlhahn adds: “[d]espite the obvious importance of legal changes and political divides, the time span reaching from 1900 to 1978 forms a coherent whole. In this time we see continuous efforts to actually expand the realm of the state at the expense of any legal autonomy of the individual” (“‘Friendly Pressure,’” 244)

12. Edmund S. K. Fung, “The Idea of Freedom in Modern China Revisited,” 462–464; and Zhang Huajun, “Individuality beyond the Dichotomy,” 545–550.

13. Lixing literally means “rationality,” and Zhang Huajun translates “ethical rationality.” Zhang’s translations are exact but may be misleading for Westerners because li and “reason” have different histories. Zhang Huajun (“Individuality beyond the Dichotomy,” 554) explains “Lixing is renxin zhi miaoyong” 人心之妙用 (the subtle use of the mind) and suggests a method of thinking that does not rely solely on strict reasoning based on predefined principles. This approach includes all types of human feelings as the foundation of ethical relationships between the self and others. In Liang Shuming’s words, lixing includes xiangshang zhixin qiang, xiangyu zhixin hou 向上之心強,相與之心厚 (seeking perfection of the self and intensively communicating with affection to others). It includes personal feelings and one’s effort to reach meaningful connections with others, including nature and the cosmos.” On Liang