47. Nylan (“‘Living without Sin,’” 57–72) considers anachronistic and useless the debates on the contrast between a Chinese outer-directed shame culture and a supposedly more inner-directed guilt culture ascribed to the West. Likewise, Roetz (“Rights and Duties: East/West,” 216–217) is of the opinion that there is no superiority of either shame or guilt as such, and all depends on people’s cognitive structures. The question is still pending, as demonstrated by the study by Olwen Bedford and Kwang-Kuo Hwang (“Guilt and Shame in Chinese Culture”), which calls into question the two categories/labels. Through the examination of specific terms, the authors demonstrate the inadequacy of the current conceptualization of guilt and shame, and how the differences in the moral systems and identity are reflected in a differential content and function of guilt and shame across cultures.

48. On the concept of “ethical self-commitment” in Confucianism, see Kwong-loi Shun “Ethical Self-Commitment.”