Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

for good behavior is often integrated by Zhu Xi’s doctrine of the “second nature” discussed at length earlier. Zhu Zhiyu 朱之瑜 (ca. 1600–1682) criticizes the determinism inherent to the theory of the infusion of various types of cosmic energy and supports instead the importance of the influence of environment and education. According to him, the average person is able to choose their way. Wang Fuzhi comes to the same conclusion. He emphasizes the power of a person to make choices freely (能自取而自用也), thereby contributing to continually forge and reforge their nature through habits and daily options.⁹² The deep autonomous morality is evident in the following inscription by the early Ming Dynasty scholar Du Qiong 杜瓊 (1396–1474) who—beyond the rhetoric style—confesses to himself in front of his portrait: “Although you appear ceremonious, You cannot see yourself. When others look at you, They will also see what lies beneath the appearance. Thanks to the painting, I got to know you. But if you are to delude yourself, What is the use of feigning respectfulness?” (爾若自欺,象恭何益?).⁹³

Both the Monists and those who emphasized the principle-energy dyad take into consideration conscience and volition.⁹⁴ The role of education versus innate character was another theme of debate on self-improving, and focused on the exegesis of two propositions of the Lunyu, according to which all people are the same concerning their human nature, although they can differ in habits of practice (xi 習)—an exception is granted only for the great sages (shangzhi 上智) and the extremely stupid (xiayu 下禹), who are not affected by changes at all.⁹⁵ Resorting to the acquisitive factor of practice and education was especially useful to the Monists, who considered it a modifying element of human nature, and gave different weight to the relationship between moral and accidental-concrete nature. Liu Ji 劉基 (1311–1375), Wang Tingxiang 王廷相 (1474–1544), Wu Tinghan 吳廷翰 (1491–1559), Zhu Zhiyu, Wang Fuzhi 王夫之 (1619–1692), and Yan Yuan also resorted to daily practice and habits to explain the different personalities and behaviors. All of them arrive at determination as the key point for moral progress. Hu Zhi 胡直 (1517–1585), in his autobiographical reflections,