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of the universe. When seen from this angle, human nature can overcome the moral-social discourse of Confucian thinkers and be identified with the spontaneity of nature (ziran). The Buddhist tradition, instead, even ignores the consequences of removing notions of “self” as both self and the world are deemed illusory. Only action driven by intention (cetanā) and selection of skillful and unskillful actions are believed to denote the human ability of liberation from karma and multiple life cycles. On the various meanings of eremitism concerning individualism, see Bauer, “The Hidden Hero,” 157–191; and Seokwon Choi, Fashioning the Reclusive Persona. ix–x, 2, 21–27, 93–94, 204–209.

83. “Man’s will to do good derives only from a strong determination” (人之欲为善也由乎一念之烈而已). Wang Wei, Zhici 巵辭, 12a.

84. Frisina, “Heaven’s Partners or Nietzschean Free Spirits?,” 35–41.

85. 求之於心而非也，雖其言之出於孔子，不敢以為是也，而況其未及孔子者乎? 求之於心而是也，雖其言之出於庸常，不敢以為非也，而況其出於孔子乎? […] 爾那一點良知，是爾自家底準則。爾意念著處，他是便知是，非便知非，更瞞地一些不得。爾只不要欺他，實實落落依著他做去，善便存，惡便去。Chuanxilu, 173 (答羅整菴少宰書), Yangming quanshu, 2:27, and 206 (門人漺丸川錄). Translated by Chan Wing-tsit, Instructions for Practical Living, 159, 193.

86. Lynn, “Preface,” xiii.

87. Yang Yuan Xiansheng Quanji 楊園先生全集, 20: 28a–30a, cited in Wu Pei-yi, “Self-Examination and Confession of Sins in Traditional China,” 21 and The Confucian’s Progress, 221–222. According to Wu, the hundred compound words formed by a verb prefixed by zi- included forty-six compounds with twenty-three pairs of opposites, twenty with negative meaning (e.g., self-indulging), eight suggesting introspection, and the remaining ones with positive and active connotations.

88. Translated by Wu Pei-yi, The Confucian’s Progress, 222.

89. In Buddhism the question on whether salvation can be reached by “one’s own effort” (zili 自力) or by “external help” (tali 他力) has been widely discussed. See, for instance, Xiyouji 55: 762–775; and Plaks, The Four Masterworks, 255.

90. Mansfield, Yan Yuan, 40.

91. Cf. Mengzi Zhengyi, 11: 436–437, on the possibility of modifying one’s nature: “[t]his does not depend on the diversity of nature, but on one’s capacity. The beasts do not have the capacity of men, so they cannot do good nor commit serious crimes. Humans are different for they are able to subdue all beings. Before the advent of sages, all men under