This is a limited free preview of this book. Please buy full access.

---

not reducible to psychology: that there exist distinct social yet not psychological entities, which are institutions, customs, traditions, societies, and the like). In so doing, he takes into consideration various intermediate positions.

4. See Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice, 77–99; and “Translingual Practice,” 160–193, 221n5. In modern Chinese dictionaries, geren is basically defined as the individual face to face with society or other group which is a part of 單獨一人。相對於團體而言。如：「個人是組成社會的一份子。」.

5. The term is derived from Greek agon, meaning contest, and thus brings out a central feature of the polis (McCormick,“The Concept of the Self in Political Thought,” 692).

6. See McCormick,“The Concept of the Self in Political Thought,” 689–725, especially with reference to “cosmopolitism” where cosmos substitutes polis (695–696). See also Simmel, Sociology of Georg Simmel, 64–84, esp. 78–84.

7. de Maistre, Du Pape (1821), bk. III. ch. II, 342, 346, quoted in Lukes, “The Meanings of ‘Individualism,’” 46.

8. F. de Lamennais (La Mennais), Des Progres de la Revolution et de la Guerre contre l’Eglise (1829), quoted in Lukes, “The Meanings of ‘Individualism,’” 47.

9. Lukes, “The Meanings of ‘Individualism,’” 51.

10. On the change over time of the concepts of individual and personal identity in Western culture, see Ricoeur, Oneself as Another. For a cross-cultural comparison see 55n19 in chapter 3 of this volume.

11. See Dumont, Essay sur l’Individualisme, in which holism is contrasted with individualism. Kitayama and Markus (Emotion and Culture) distinguish between independent and interdependent schemas of the self, influenced by culture, and focus on the perception of the self as an interdependent entity (uchi no hito, or “in-group”) whereby identity is constantly redefined through one’s relations with others. This model is opposed to that prevailing in Western societies in which the self is perceived as an independent entity, abstracted from the social context, and rooted in the individual’s own internal attributes, abilities and desires. See also Shwender and Boune, “Does the Concept of the Person Vary Cross-culturally?.” According to Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, individualization processes developed in the West over the last few decades of the twentieth century. The two scholars call this phenomenon “second modernity” and ascribe it to the “democratization of individualization”