Individual Autonomy and Responsibility in Late Imperial China By ...

resulted in an integrated conception of self within the cosmos. Brindley comments: “[t]he idea—albeit a false one—that traditional Asian values do not embrace individualism is constructed upon a particular reading of Chinese history that still exists today; namely, that there has never been an emphasis on individual prerogative and authority in the development of Chinese culture; that Chinese society has traditionally stressed one’s social role and the subservience of individual concerns to those of the group.”⁸ Studies have evidenced the Mohist discourse of the fundamental power of each individual to take responsibility for their actions, the universal potential of humans to achieve some level of moral character and wisdom through the exercise and fulfilment of one’s judgment. Similarly, scholars have stressed that Mencius, by viewing human nature, xing 性, as an internal source of normativity, locates morality within the individual and does not ascribe it to external circumstances. Besides, considering other schools, Yang Zhu’s 楊朱 (440–360 BC) emphasis on the self (己, 我), and Zhuangzi’s acknowledgement of individuals whose personal goals are deemed more important than political or social efficacy have been pointed out.⁹ Other interesting arguments concern Buddhism, for instance, the “Buddha nature” in each individual.¹⁰

Thus, several contemporary scholars, such as Roetz, Yu Yingshi, de Bary, Du Weiming, Thomas Metzger, and Donald Munro, in different ways highlight the active and autonomous role of the individual in Confucianism and its moral tension toward self-improvement and changing reality. They thereby run against the Weberian view that conceived of the spirit of Neo-Confucian morality as nothing but a pure compromise that pushes the agent to adapt to the world.¹¹ In the pre-Qin period, as Donald Munro states, Confucians insisted on the role of social relations in making choices; at the same time, they believed in self-education and being tranquil while alone. But eventually, in contrast, the central focus on conformity arose in the Han dynasty with Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 (179?–104 BC). For Dong, there was no distinction between morality and obedience to rules or standards set by the emperor. Loyalty to the emperor was the supreme value. By birth, humans have only rudimentary