| Chapter 1: | Introduction |
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To overcome the various limitations of the buffer and direct effect hypotheses some researchers called for a focus on the concept of social support itself. They claimed research in these two areas had proceeded without general agreement as to how social support is defined and without attention to the context in which it was constituted.2 Indeed, as has been shown, social support had been indiscriminately treated as undefined supportive resources, occurring in a variety of arbitrary interactions and measured as a medley of social integration ranging from marriage alone to scales of numerous relations (Berkman, 1985; Kaplan et al., 1977; Lin, Ye, & Ensel, 1999; for discussion see Hobfoll & Stokes, 1988; House & Kahn, 1985). Under scrutiny, social support was found to be made up of four forms of support that are constituted within two levels of relations.
The four forms that social support can take are emotional aid, information, companionship,3 and instrumental assistance (Berkman et al., 2000; Knipscheer & Antonucci, 1990; Walker, Wasserman, & Wellman, 1994; Wong, Yoo, & Stewart, 2005; Wortman & Conway, 1985). Emotional or affective support is transmitted through sharing poignant events: congratulations for a well-earned promotion; the expression of empathy with its message that you are not alone; and being surrounded by a group to celebrate life or mourn death. Such expressions provide support by conveying the message that one is cared for and valued (Cobb, 1979; Thoits, 1995; Weiss, 1974). Informational support is the transmission of information and guidance such as advising a friend on a good summer camp for the kids; asking a neighbor the name of her landscaper; or providing a patient with a list of cancer support groups in her area. Knowledge gained from informational support can offer a greater understanding of problems and possible solutions.