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paths in their efforts to find the truth. Both seek clarity in the world of God and the mysterious phenomena found in the spiritual and micro-world, which are beyond the three-dimensional world.
The millenarian dream has been the concern of many people and it has been studied by many scholars from disciplines as diverse as political science, sociology, theology, religion, psychology, anthropology, history, cosmology, and physics. Most studies of millenarianism have, however, been carried out from a monotheistic point of view. There are few studies of millenarianism that draw upon the significant quantity of comparative research conducted both in the East and in the West and contribute to a true global understanding of millenarianism. In order to define millenarianism more effectively, it is helpful to study the Tonghak (Eastern Learning)5 in comparison with other movements on a global scale. The Tonghak was probably a unique millenarian movement, not only in Asia but also in the world, which embraced multiple beliefs of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, all of which originated in ancient Korean millenarianism.
I was inspired to conduct a comparative study of millenarianism, and advised throughout, by Professor Lee V. Cassanelli of the University of Pennsylvania, who is a prominent theorist of history and scholar in comparative and African studies. Emeritus Professor Hilary Conroy, at the University of Pennsylvania, who is my longest-standing mentor in East Asian studies and international relations in the United States, has also advised me throughout my studies. Both have conducted extensive research not only in regional fields, but also in international relations and global history.
To undertake graduate work in the United States from Tokyo University, where I studied political science and history, I was accepted by both the University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University. I chose to study East Asian-American relations and the Tonghak under Hilary Conroy. Both my advisors encouraged me to research millenarianism in a manner that employed a comprehensive and global approach. Many prominent scholars were interested in the Tonghak and encouraged me to research the topic. When I studied at Tokyo University, Professor Banno Masataka, a specialist in Asian and