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philosophy of most police-training programs is based on three precepts”: (1) “that it should closely follow the military training model,” (2) “it is a punishment-centered experience in which trainees must prove themselves,” and (3) “it helps screen out those who are not up to par” (pp. 31–32). He contended that the problem with learning under the traditional, pedagogical, military model of training is that it is behaviorally oriented, constituting a highly structured, regulated, and uniformed environment. As a result, given the complexity of the process and understanding that assessing learning extends far beyond standard practices common to the traditional training model, it renders assessment of real learning almost impossible. In summary, Birzer contended that “the paradox here readily comes to light: the police work in a democratic society but are trained and learn their jobs in a very paramilitary, punitive, and authoritarian environment” (p. 5); hence, there is a discernable disconnect between society's expectations of today's police and the training mentality of the traditional, pedagogical, military model of training. This opens up the need to explore more viable and pragmatic alternatives.
Andragogy: An Alternative Methodology
Addressing the importance of basic police training, Birzer and Tannehill (2001) wrote that “if the police are to stay current with the trends taking shape in society, then so too must police training” (p. 238). Underscoring the significance of a police officer's formative years—beginning with what is learned during basic police training—Birzer strongly advocated the philosophy and practice of andragogy as what he described as “a more dynamic approach to learning” (Birzer & Tannehill, p. 238). Andragogy, an adult-based learning theory advanced by Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) and other leading scholars in the field, is based on a number of important assumptions about how adults learn, which differs significantly from the way that children learn. Explaining that andragogy places primacy on the transactional processes associated with facilitating effective learning based on the needs and interests of adults and their “station in life,” advocates of