| Chapter 1: | Study One: Introduction / Overview of Study Goals |
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They apply automatic detection and controlled search processes to both attention and memory scanning. Automatic detection processes are unconscious and rely on previously experienced search routines; and controlled search processes are deliberate and have a specific sequence of steps. Shiffrin was also involved in proposing the Search of Associative Memory (SAM) model (Raaijmakers & Shiffrin, 1981). The SAM places more focus on the LTS than the original A–S model. Issues related to storage and retrieval are stressed in this model including the storage of an image of the perceived stimulus, storage based on relationships between items, and the use of retrieval cues to recall items from the LTS (Estes, 1999).
In opposition to the multi-store approach, researchers have suggested other views of the memory process. Donald Norman, a cognitive psychologist who has contributed greatly to memory theory, has rejected multi-store models, focusing the majority of his work on the content and structure of long-term memory (Lachman, et al., 1979). He suggests that short-term memory is not a separate entity, but part of the long-term storage process. Alternatives to the multi-store model include analogue memory, which is memory for perceptual events that are usually in the form of a visual display. Analogue memory is usually associated with issues related to mental imagery and multiple coding of stimuli.
Another alternative is encoding specificity, which is the notion that a target item can be remembered more easily when it is learned and retrieved using the same cues (Lachman, et al., 1979). Initial research in this area suggested that recall was higher in a cued condition than when using noncued recall (Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966). Taking this a step further, research has indicated that retrieval cue words must be presented with target words at the time of learning in order to enhance recall of the target word (Tulving & Osler, 1968). Furthermore, one retrieval cue is sufficient as experiments utilizing two cues were no more effective when compared to single cues. Even free recall experiments have indicated that highly related words will be retrieved from memory as single units (Tulving & Patterson, 1968).